:: Research  :: Teaching :::: 301  :: 400  :: 423  :: 456   ::465  :: 472  

The growing complexity and importance of sports and event marketing has pushed scholars and practitioners to apply sophisticated marketing thinking and applications to these topics. This book deals with the professional development in the sense that sports marketing can be viewed as an application of consumer behavior research. Readers will learn about new opportunities in using consumer behavior knowledge effectively in the areas of a)influencing behaviors in society and sports b) building relationships with consumers through sports and events and c) providing services to consumers through sport and event sponsorships. This book, by a superb group of authors, includes comprehensive reviews, innovative conceptual pieces, empirical research and rigorous attention to data.   

Link to  "Consumer Behavior Knowledge for Effective Sports and Event Marketing" Book Site

With an on-site study at a sponsored event, we construct and test competing models to examine the relationship between event attendees, sponsorship, community involvement, and the title sponsor’s brand with respect to purchase intentions. We show that an attendee’s enthusiasm and activeness in the area of the sponsored event and knowledge of the sponsor’s products positively influence the attendee’s desire that a sponsor be involved with the community. Then, we show that attendees who are more community-minded have a more positive opinion of the sponsor as a result of their event experience; a better opinion of the sponsor contributes to increased intentions to purchase the sponsor’s products. Results from this framework indicate that event marketing, in conjunction with consumers who are enthusiastic, active, and knowledgeable about the sponsor and event, serves as a valuable lever to engage the consumer.    

Download "Engaging Consumers through Event Marketing" Full Text

Based on a real-world field study of twenty-one sponsored promotional events (sponsored fashion shows) (n=535), we provide a self-congruity theory-based model explaining the role of mall shopper’s self-congruity on the effectiveness of experiential mall promotions. We find that self-congruity with the event is a key influencer of promotion effectiveness. Specifically we show that: a) more expertise with the sponsor impacts self-congruity with the sponsor; b) in turn, self-congruity with the promotional event enhances persuasiveness of the event; and c) this event persuasion enhances the consumer’s likelihood to shop at the sponsor’s store. Further, when entertained shoppers like the promotional events and wish for more of such promotions, they tend to think more positively about the sponsor, view the promotional event as a good way to highlight the sponsor, and desire to shop more at the retail sponsor. These are important findings for advertising research practitioners, as they suggest that event attendees focus on how the sponsoring retailer fits with their image and sense of self.

Download "Fashion Event Marketing" Full Text

The objectives of this study are twofold: 1) to uncover the anti-consumption and alternative consumption attitudes and behaviors during a commercial holiday, and 2) to advance resistance theories in these areas. We address these via four complementary methods stemming from seven years of primary research (i.e., retailer interviews, consumer diaries, e-diaries, surveys). In order to extend resistance theories, we examine multi-method data spanning over seven years of events related to a holiday market. In the context of Valentine’s Day, we present findings and develop knowledge on anti-consumption and alternative consumption. Specifically, we introduce the recurring events of gift-resistance, retail-resistance, and market-resistance. In turn, we find that such consumer resistance often co-exists with movements towards individualism and creation of more unique alternative consumption traditions.

Download "Market Resistance and Valentine's Day Events" Full Text
Download "Market Resistance and Valentine's Day Events" Presentation
 

Understanding the impact of retaining sponsors and event attendees offers important insight both to organizations that are contemplating long-term sponsorship relationships and to event marketers seeking ongoing sponsorship partnerships. Yet prior to this study, the impact of multi-year sponsorship and attendance on a sponsoring brand have not been investigated. The study addresses this gap through the examination of field survey results obtained during a professional cycling event, the Dodge Tour de Georgia, which drew more than 800,000 spectators over a six-day period in April 2005. Data from a sample of 1,227 attendees suggest that multi-year attendance is associated with enhanced brand image and purchase intentions of an ongoing title sponsor’s products. There are significant differences in: 1) attendees’ attitudes about the title sponsor and 2) their increased likelihood of purchasing the sponsor’s vehicles. Attitudes about the title sponsor were most favorable among spectators who attended the annual event multiple times. Furthermore, those who attended the event multiple times showed an increased likelihood of purchasing a new vehicle from the title sponsor. Advancing relationship theory, we find that consumers appreciate that the corporate brand contributes more to society than its primary business activities, and in turn, consumers state that they act on that appreciation.

Download "Repeat Attendance at Event Marketing" Full Text

An IMC Approach to Event Marketing: The Effects of Sponsorship and Experience on Customer Attitudes

Sneath, Julie, Russell Lacey, R. Zachary Finney, and Angeline G. Close (2005), "An IMC Approach to Event Marketing: The Effects of Sponsorship and Experience on Customer Attitudes," Journal of Advertising Research, 45, 4 (December) 373-381.

The number of companies sponsoring events has increased over the past decade.  Yet, for many firms it is unclear how the effectiveness of event marketing activities, as a component of the overall communications mix, can be measured.  The current study examines outcomes associated with an automobile manufacturer’s sponsorship of a charitable sporting event.   Data for the study was collected from a sample of 565 spectators in five cities during the six-day event.  Survey participants were asked to indicate how they had heard about the event and any exhibits and activities in which they participated during the event.  In addition, respondents were asked to identify attitudes toward the title sponsor and its products, likelihood of purchasing the sponsor’s cars and trucks and preferred choice of next vehicle.  Results of the study provide evidence for inclusion of event marketing in the company’s promotional mix.  Further, the findings indicate that providing opportunities for experience with the sponsor’s products during the event may enhance outcomes associated with the event.  The role of event marketing as a form of communication is discussed, and recommendations and directions for future research are suggested.    

Download "Event Marketing" Full Text

A budding industry trend is the shift away from sponsorship of high-profile shared events to smaller "exclusive" marketing events.  Despite their increased number, it is clear that event-related expenditures are being scrutinized. The lack of support concerning sponsorship effectiveness questions the wisdom of its continued use. Few studies have offered empirical insight into the impact of proprietary versus non-proprietary event marketing.  In response, the two objectives of this study are: (1) to explore the trade-offs between proprietary and non-proprietary sponsored marketing events, and (2) to assess the impact of healthcare marketing activities in association with a high-profile sporting event. To address the latter objective, we analyze field survey spectator results gathered at a sporting event during which a healthcare organization’s exhibits were present.  We discuss the two major types of event marketing and the trade-offs of each approach. We then describe the event, healthcare marketers, and event beneficiary, along with the results of the study and analysis of the healthcare marketer’s impact on the event.  Following the study results, we examine a prominent healthcare organization and reasons why it subscribes to the alternative event marketing approach.  Finally, based on the findings of the two approaches, we offer marketing implications for healthcare organizations.

Download "Proprietary Event Marketing" Full Text

Here, we seek to advance understanding of consumers’ resistance manifest in holiday events. Specifically, we maintain three objectives: 1) to introduce a definition of market resistance, 2) to understand and explain consumer experiences that are associated with consumers’ resistance, and 3) to show what consumers are moving towards via their acts of resistance. We introduce a definition market resistance as an opposition to traditions in the marketplace, with the purpose of creating new behaviors. We employ five synergistic methods over seven years (2000-2006). We present a theoretical framework to show the characteristics associated with market resistance. In the context of Valentine’s Day, we find that consumer experiences that drive market resistance are unfulfilled expectations, exclusion, terminal materialism, obligations, role exhaustion, and low need perception. Together, we present a framework that may serve as a base for scholars to continue theoretical development. We develop two key areas of resistance theory: ambivalence and avoidance. Using new communication media, informants who avoid the traditional marketplace often find new places to share negative feelings. Thus, we extend aspects of resistance theory into the digital age by showing how informants do not avoid their negative feelings completely. Instead, they often create new channels for the negative feelings that are less apparent in the traditional marketplace. We show that consumers are moving towards a higher purpose with their resistance. In many cases, we find that consumers are moving towards acts of voluntary simplicity and co-creation of new marketplace traditions. Along with acts of market resistance, consumers create new events, traditions, rituals, and trends. While some informants maintain traditions, many re-create traditions and serve as change-agents. We present implications for theory, limitations, and avenues to extend this framework.

Download "Resisting Holiday Events" Full Text
Download "Resisting Holiday Events" Presentation

Valentine’s Day is an event associated with lavish consumption, rituals, expectations, and commercialism. Much of the romance is displayed with store-bought and marketing-driven exchanges, contrary to the unique personalized and intimate nature sometimes associated with Valentine’s Day and associated events. The objective of our multi-method study is to provide insight into Valentine’s rituals, themes, and meanings (as expressed in the U.S.) as a basis for understanding consumer behavior for this holiday.  Our three research questions focus on: a) consumer behaviors and rituals (both in-store and in the private spheres), b) key consumer meanings and emergent themes, and c) roles of marketing communications during this holiday. We identify many consumer behaviors associated with Valentine’s Day.  In turn, we categorize behaviors into the areas of: gift exchange, card exchange, affection, food and drink preparation and consumption, and grooming/clothing.  Many of these behaviors revolve around intimacy and sexuality.  Some key meanings associated with these behaviors include:  “belongingness”, “altruism”, “affection and intimacy”, “mutual expectations”, “self-gifts”, and “negative feelings”.

Download "Loved and Loathed" Full Text
Download "Loved and Loathed" Presentation

Sex-Typing of Leisure Activities: A Test of Two Theories

Zinkhan, George M., Penelope Prenshaw, and Angeline G. Close (2004), "Sex-Typing of Leisure Activities: A Test of Two Theories," Advances in Consumer Research, 31 (B. Kahn and M.F. Luce, ed.), Valdosta, GA: Association for Consumer Research, 412-419.  
 

It is generally accepted that perceptions of the suitability of particular leisure events and activities for males and females exist, and are based on sex-related stereotypes.  Colley (1987) cites two sources from which these sex-related perceptions may emanate.  First, they may be based on views of what is appropriate for the roles men and women enact at work and in the home.  Second, perceptions may reflect stereotypes of male and female physical and psychological traits (particularly in relation to sport participation). The appropriateness of particular leisure events and activities for males or females is often used as a predictor for participation.  However, research has only investigated the sex-appropriateness of sports and physical activities within the leisure domain (Colley, Nash, O’Donnell and Restorick 1987). Therefore, the first research objective is to create and validate a comprehensive list of leisure activities and to classify these activities as “masculine,” “feminine,” or “neutral”.

The second objective is to investigate the determinants of sex-typing of leisure activities and events.  The theories of Bem (1981) and Spence (1984) purport to explain the phenomenon of sex-typing; the former takes a personality approach, while the latter takes an attitudinal approach toward understanding sex-typing.  A central issue in testing Bem and Spence’s theories, concerns whether a personality approach or an attitude approach is more appropriate.  Although personality research has contributed much to our understanding of psychological phenomena, some researchers are disenchanted with the sometimes weak relationships, which appear to exist between personality and behavior (Kassarjian and Sheffet 1991).  Spence’s attitude approach, within the domain of sex-typing, represents one possible alternative.  Thus, this study investigates the effect of gender personality and gender-role attitudes upon sex-typing of leisurely events, and seeks to determine the individual and combined effects of these gender-related phenomena upon sex-typing of leisure activities.  As leisure activities transgress online, a re-evaluation of gender theory is called for as it pertains to leisurely behavior and leisure events.

Download "Sex-Typing" Full Text
Download "Sex-Typing" Presentation

Marketing Communications, Brand Loyalty and Teenagers: A Logit Choice Model

Angeline G. Close, “Marketing Communications, Brand Loyalty and Teenagers: A Logit Choice Model,” Working Paper.
 

Brand loyalty is often a desired outcome of event marketing communications. This research focuses on the impact of demographic variables, namely as teenage status and gender, on brand loyalty. Other variables studied include taste, quality, image, and the utility of the soft drink. Via an empirical application utilizing marketing modeling techniques, we examine brand loyalty in the soft drink category.  To do this, we use a logit model.  Survey data among South American soft drink consumers (n=6000) are collected and used to estimate a loyalty model.  After interpretation, we discuss the findings, implications, and recommendations. Our main findings indicate that teenagers and males are the most likely to be brand loyal in the soft drink category, and that there is no interaction effect between gender and age. We discuss the findings with their potential impact on marketing communications decisions relevant to gender and the teenage market on an international level.

Download "Consumer Loyalty and Marketing Communications" Full Text