Engaging the Consumer
through Event Marketing: Linking Attendees with the
Sponsor, Community, and Brand
Close, Angeline G., R. Zachary
Finney, Russell Lacey, and Julie Sneath (2006), Engaging
the Consumer through Event Marketing: Linking Attendees with
the Sponsor, Community, and Brand," Journal of Advertising
Research, 46, 4 (December), forthcoming.
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OVERVIEW:
With an on-site study at a sponsored
event, we construct and test competing models to examine the
relationship between event attendees, sponsorship, community
involvement, and the title sponsor’s brand with respect to
purchase intentions. We show that an attendee’s enthusiasm and
activeness in the area of the sponsored event and knowledge of the
sponsor’s products positively influence the attendee’s desire that
a sponsor be involved with the community. Then, we show that
attendees who are more community-minded have a more positive
opinion of the sponsor as a result of their event experience; a
better opinion of the sponsor contributes to increased intentions
to purchase the sponsor’s products. Results from this framework
indicate that event marketing, in conjunction with consumers who
are enthusiastic, active, and knowledgeable about the sponsor and
event, serves as a valuable lever to engage the consumer.
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Marketing" Full Text |
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The Impact of Repeat
Attendance on Sponsorship Marketing Effects
Russell Lacey, Julie Sneath, R.
Zachary Finney, and Angeline G. Close (2007), "The Impact
of Repeat Attendance on Sponsorship Marketing Effects," Journal
of Marketing Communications, forthcoming.
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OVERVIEW:
Understanding the impact of retaining sponsors and event attendees
offers important insight both to organizations that are
contemplating long-term sponsorship relationships and to event
marketers seeking ongoing sponsorship partnerships. Yet prior to
this study, the impact of multi-year sponsorship and attendance on
a sponsoring brand have not been investigated. The study addresses
this gap through the examination of field survey results obtained
during a professional cycling event, the Dodge Tour de Georgia,
which drew more than 800,000 spectators over a six-day period in
April 2005. Data from a sample of 1,227 attendees suggest that
multi-year attendance is associated with enhanced brand image and
purchase intentions of an ongoing title sponsor’s products. There
are significant differences in: 1) attendees’ attitudes about the
title sponsor and 2) their increased likelihood of purchasing the
sponsor’s vehicles. Attitudes about the title sponsor were most
favorable among spectators who attended the annual event multiple
times. Furthermore, those who attended the event multiple times
showed an increased likelihood of purchasing a new vehicle from
the title sponsor. Advancing relationship theory, we find that
consumers appreciate that the corporate brand contributes more to
society than its primary business activities, and in turn,
consumers state that they act on that appreciation.
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"Repeat Attendance at Event Marketing" Full Text
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An IMC Approach to Event
Marketing: The Effects of Sponsorship and Experience on Customer
Attitudes
Sneath, Julie, Russell Lacey, R.
Zachary Finney, and Angeline G. Close (2005), "An IMC
Approach to Event Marketing: The Effects of Sponsorship and
Experience on Customer Attitudes," Journal of Advertising
Research, 45, 4 (December) 373-381.
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OVERVIEW:
The number of companies sponsoring
events has increased over the past decade. Yet, for many
firms it is unclear how the effectiveness of event marketing
activities, as a component of the overall communications mix, can
be measured. The current study examines outcomes associated
with an automobile manufacturer’s sponsorship of a charitable
sporting event. Data for the study was collected from
a sample of 565 spectators in five cities during the six-day
event. Survey participants were asked to indicate how they
had heard about the event and any exhibits and activities in which
they participated during the event. In addition, respondents
were asked to identify attitudes toward the title sponsor and its
products, likelihood of purchasing the sponsor’s cars and trucks
and preferred choice of next vehicle. Results of the study
provide evidence for inclusion of event marketing in the company’s
promotional mix. Further, the findings indicate that
providing opportunities for experience with the sponsor’s products
during the event may enhance outcomes associated with the event.
The role of event marketing as a form of communication is
discussed, and recommendations and directions for future research
are suggested.
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Balancing Act (Proprietary
and Non-Proprietary Event Sponsorships)
Sneath, Julie, Russell Lacey,
R. Zachary Finney, and Angeline G. Close (2006), "Balancing
Act," Marketing Health Services, 26, 1 (Spring),
27-32.
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OVERVIEW:
A budding industry trend
is the shift away from sponsorship of high-profile shared events
to smaller "exclusive" marketing events. Despite their
increased number, it is clear that event-related expenditures are
being scrutinized. The lack of support concerning sponsorship
effectiveness questions the wisdom of its continued use.
Few
studies have offered empirical insight into the impact of
proprietary versus non-proprietary event marketing. In
response, the two objectives of this study are: (1) to explore the
trade-offs between proprietary and non-proprietary sponsored
marketing events, and (2) to assess the impact of healthcare
marketing activities in association with a high-profile sporting
event.
To
address the latter objective, we analyze field survey spectator
results gathered at a sporting event during which a healthcare
organization’s exhibits were present. We
discuss the two major types of event marketing and the trade-offs
of each approach. We then describe the event, healthcare
marketers, and event beneficiary, along with the results of the
study and analysis of the healthcare marketer’s impact on the
event. Following the study results, we examine a prominent
healthcare organization and reasons why it subscribes to the
alternative event marketing approach. Finally, based on the
findings of the two approaches, we offer marketing implications
for healthcare organizations.
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Consumer Experiences and
Market Resistance:
An Extension of Resistance Theories
Angeline G. Close and George M.
Zinkhan (2007), "Consumer Experiences and Market
Resistance: An Extension of Resistance Theories,"
Advances in Consumer Research,
33, forthcoming.
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OVERVIEW:
Here, we seek to advance understanding of
consumers’ resistance manifest in holiday events. Specifically, we
maintain three objectives: 1) to introduce a definition of market
resistance, 2) to understand and explain consumer experiences that
are associated with consumers’ resistance, and 3) to show what
consumers are moving towards via their acts of resistance.
We introduce a definition market resistance as
an opposition to traditions in the marketplace, with the purpose
of creating new behaviors. We employ five synergistic methods over
seven years (2000-2006). We present a theoretical framework to
show the characteristics associated with market resistance. In the
context of Valentine’s Day, we find that consumer experiences that
drive market resistance are unfulfilled expectations, exclusion,
terminal materialism, obligations, role exhaustion, and low need
perception. Together, we present a framework that may serve as a
base for scholars to continue theoretical development.
We develop two key areas of resistance theory:
ambivalence and avoidance. Using new communication media,
informants who avoid the traditional marketplace often find new
places to share negative feelings. Thus, we extend aspects of
resistance theory into the digital age by showing how informants
do not avoid their negative feelings completely. Instead, they
often create new channels for the negative feelings that are less
apparent in the traditional marketplace.
We show that consumers are moving towards a
higher purpose with their resistance. In many cases, we find that
consumers are moving towards acts of voluntary simplicity and
co-creation of new marketplace traditions. Along with acts of
market resistance, consumers create new events, traditions,
rituals, and trends. While some informants maintain traditions,
many re-create traditions and serve as change-agents. We present
implications for theory, limitations, and avenues to extend this
framework.
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"Resisting Holiday Events" Full Text |
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A Holiday Loved and Loathed:
A Consumer Perspective of Valentine’s Day
Angeline Grace Close and George
M. Zinkhan (2006), "A Holiday Loved and Loathed: A Consumer
Perspective of Valentine’s Day," Advances in Consumer Research,
34, forthcoming.
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OVERVIEW:
Valentine’s Day is an event
associated with lavish consumption, rituals, expectations, and
commercialism. Much of the romance is displayed with store-bought
and marketing-driven exchanges, contrary to the unique
personalized and intimate nature sometimes associated with
Valentine’s Day and associated events. The objective of our
multi-method study is to provide insight into Valentine’s rituals,
themes, and meanings (as expressed in the U.S.) as a basis for
understanding consumer behavior for this holiday. Our three
research questions focus on: a) consumer behaviors and rituals
(both in-store and in the private spheres), b) key consumer
meanings and emergent themes, and c) roles of marketing
communications during this holiday.
We identify many consumer behaviors
associated with Valentine’s Day. In turn, we categorize
behaviors into the areas of: gift exchange, card exchange,
affection, food and drink preparation and consumption, and
grooming/clothing.
Many of these behaviors revolve around intimacy and sexuality.
Some key meanings associated with these behaviors include:
“belongingness”, “altruism”, “affection and intimacy”, “mutual
expectations”, “self-gifts”, and “negative feelings”.
Download "Loved and Loathed" Full Text
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Sex-Typing of Leisure Activities: A
Test of Two Theories
Zinkhan, George M., Penelope Prenshaw, and Angeline G. Close
(2004), "Sex-Typing of Leisure Activities: A Test of Two
Theories," Advances in Consumer Research, 31 (B. Kahn and
M.F. Luce, ed.), Valdosta, GA: Association for Consumer Research,
412-419.
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OVERVIEW:
It is generally accepted that
perceptions of the suitability of particular leisure events and
activities for males and females exist, and are based on
sex-related stereotypes. Colley (1987) cites two sources
from which these sex-related perceptions may emanate. First,
they may be based on views of what is appropriate for the roles
men and women enact at work and in the home. Second,
perceptions may reflect stereotypes of male and female physical
and psychological traits (particularly in relation to sport
participation).
The appropriateness of particular
leisure events and activities for males or females is often used
as a predictor for participation. However, research has only
investigated the sex-appropriateness of sports and physical
activities within the leisure domain (Colley, Nash, O’Donnell and
Restorick 1987). Therefore, the first research objective is to
create and validate a comprehensive list of leisure activities and
to classify these activities as “masculine,” “feminine,” or
“neutral”.
The second
objective is to investigate the determinants of sex-typing of
leisure activities and events. The theories of Bem (1981)
and Spence (1984) purport to explain the phenomenon of sex-typing;
the former takes a personality approach, while the latter takes an
attitudinal approach toward understanding sex-typing. A
central issue in testing Bem and Spence’s theories, concerns
whether a personality approach or an attitude approach is more
appropriate. Although personality research has contributed
much to our understanding of psychological phenomena, some
researchers are disenchanted with the sometimes weak
relationships, which appear to exist between personality and
behavior (Kassarjian and Sheffet 1991). Spence’s attitude
approach, within the domain of sex-typing, represents one possible
alternative. Thus, this study investigates the effect of
gender personality and gender-role attitudes upon sex-typing of
leisurely events, and seeks to determine the individual and
combined effects of these gender-related phenomena upon sex-typing
of leisure activities. As leisure activities transgress
online, a re-evaluation of gender theory is called for as it
pertains to leisurely behavior and leisure events.
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Full Text |
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Presentation |
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Marketing Communications, Brand Loyalty and
Teenagers: A Logit Choice Model
Angeline Grace Close and Richard J. Fox, “Marketing
Communications, Brand Loyalty and Teenagers: A Logit Choice
Model,” Working Paper.
OVERVIEW: Brand
loyalty is often a desired outcome of event marketing
communications. This research focuses on the impact of demographic
variables, namely as teenage status and gender, on brand loyalty.
Other variables studied include taste, quality, image, and the
utility of the soft drink. Via an empirical application utilizing
marketing modeling techniques, we examine brand loyalty in the
soft drink category. To do this, we use a logit model.
Survey data among South American soft drink consumers (n=6000) are
collected and used to estimate a loyalty model. After
interpretation, we discuss the findings, implications, and
recommendations. Our main findings indicate that teenagers and
males are the most likely to be brand loyal in the soft drink
category, and that there is no interaction effect between gender
and age. We discuss the findings with their potential impact on
marketing communications decisions relevant to gender and the
teenage market on an international level.
Download "Consumer Loyalty and Marketing
Communications" Full Text |
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Chalkboards to Cybercources: The Internet in Marketing Education
Close, Angeline G., Ashutosh Dixit,
and Naresh Malhotra (2005), “Chalkboards to
Cybercources: The
Internet in Marketing Education,”
Marketing Education Review,
15 (2) (Summer),
81-94.
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OVERVIEW:
Electronic environments such as the
Internet lead the way to ever-changing concepts in marketing
education. The changing state of technology necessitates an
equally rapid synthesis of literature. Our study serves as an
investigation of research concerning the Internet and marketing
education. We synthesize 80 articles featuring the Internet
and marketing education and classify the literature into seven
components. These areas include: 1) active learning, 2) Internet
marketing degree requirement, 3) marketing department websites, 4)
pedagogical obstacles, 5) student benefits and obstacles, 6)
distance learning courses, and 7) the future of marketing
education. We then systematically identify gaps in the research,
in order to provide streams for future study in this evolving
area. The emerging gaps include: e-ethics in marketing, collapsing
international boundaries, technology and marketing department
value, and the infinite “Internet2”. We ultimately address
the state of Internet-based education, and how the state of the
field relates with the gaps in literature. Our research targets
the marketing professor, doctoral students in marketing, and
educational institutions, as each may be profoundly impacted by
the body of knowledge that has emerged as marketing environments
evolve from the “chalkboard to the cybercourse”.
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Cybercources" Full Text |
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to Cybercources"
Presentation |
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Technology and Dating Rituals:
A Historical Analysis of Online and Electronic Rituals
Angeline G. Close and George M.
Zinkhan, “Technology and Dating Rituals: A Historical Analysis”,
Working Paper.
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OVERVIEW:
This research analyzes dating patterns in recent American history
as they relate to consumer behavior. Before undertaking a
phenomenology of today's increasingly electronic dating culture,
we provide an extensive, historically based review of past dating
patterns and trends in American history. This phenomenology
of modern dating is generated through a series of in-depth
interviews. Dating attitudes and behavior are analyzed in
light of the three theories regarding the functions of dating:
dating as status-seeking, dating as socialization, and dating as
fulfilling ego needs. We view dating patterns as a non-static
phenomena. Furthermore, dating is questioned to be changing
along with societal and cultural adaptations. Culture has
reinforced male and female evolutionary preferences through the
media and the institutions of dating and marriage. The
evolutionary framework presents consumer behavior as an extension
of behavior patterns established before the era of consumerism.
Awareness of a future outlook of these changes on American dating
norms provides insight to marketers as dating is a form of
consumption and ultra-conscious marketing in the e-services and
e-commerce arena.
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The
eMergence of eDating
Close, Angeline G.
and George M. Zinkhan (2004), "The E-Mergence of E-Dating,
Advances in Consumer Research, 31 (B. Kahn and M.F. Luce,
ed.), Valdosta, GA: Association for Consumer Research, 153-157.
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OVERVIEW:
“Now fate has met its match!”
---Yahoo! Personals.
Dating, or the process of
ritualistically courting a partner with a perceived aspect of
romantic potential, is a component of consumer behavior that is
currently in a transition stage. Dating behavior is “E-merging”
along with increased online and wireless capability. E-dating
sites account for the highest portion of all online paid
advertising content. There is an e-dating site for almost
every religion (e.g., catholicsingles.com), region (e.g.,
chicagosingles.com), or cultural background (e.g.,
globalrishta.com). The most popular online dating services
(e.g., match.com; myspace.com) draw patrons and curious
counterparts from all financial, economic, and social backgrounds.
E-dating sites provide a virtual opportunity for consumers to
interact and stage marketed events. The electronic and event
environments have the potential to transition traditional dating
patterns, rituals, scripts, and motivations on both the individual
and the societal level.
Two central questions guide this
research. Primarily, “To what extent do daters use the Internet to
initiate and/or facilitate dating relationships in the U.S.?
Furthermore, “What concerns and outcomes do consumers experience
before, during, and after searching, posting, and/or joining an
Internet dating/singles site?” In pursuing these questions, we
seek to: a) understand the emergence of electronic (Internet)
dating via informants’ experiences, and b)
present data that describes and typifies consumer
motivations, experiences, and outcomes of e-dating in the online
and onground marketplaces.
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Download "E-Dating E-Mergence"
Full Text |
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E-Mergence" Presentation
Rules of
Romance at Work: Who’s the Boss?
Close, Angeline G.
(2002), “Rules of Romance at Work: Who’s the Boss,”
Atlantic Marketing Association, 187-193. |
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OVERVIEW:
Before the Internet's e-dating scene emerged, the workplace
remained a common (yet often controversial) place to meet a
romantic partner.
Eight million relationships a year
begin at the workplace (Society for Human Resources 2001), dating
at the workplace versus the marketplace presents challenges and
opportunities at the individual, couple, and organizational level.
Daters who work together often find themselves in situations that
present a choice between business or a romantic relationship. This
choice may be attempted to be controlled by corporate policy, yet
in many contexts, a policy banning workplace romance is not
realistic, appropriate, nor effective. Dating incorporates
intimacy, passion, and commitment, as suggested by Sternberg’s
(1989) triangle theory of love. I overlap this theory with
"three Ws" of a workplace dating policy: 1. When should
there be a policy banning workplace dating?; 2. Why or why
not have such a policy?; 3. Would such a policy be taken
seriously?
In respect to the triangle theory
(Sternberg 1989), I interviewed 22 workplace daters and managers
about their company policy and the outcomes of such policy. I
present advantages and disadvantages on policy surrounding
workplace dating. I discuss managerial implications, noting
that love is a higher-order boss. Policies for e-dating at the
workplace are suggested.
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Romance" Full Text |
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Download "Rules of
Romance" Presentation |
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The Agency in Cyberspace: A
Content Analysis of Ad Agency Homepages
Finney, R. Z., Richard D. Parker,
Angeline G.Close, and Robert A. Orwig (2004),"The Agency in
Cyberspace: A Content Analysis of Ad Agency Homepages, Journal
of Contemporary Business Issues,
12 (2) (Fall),
74-80.
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OVERVIEW:
"If you don't get noticed, you don't
have anything. You just have to be noticed, but the art is in
getting noticed naturally, without screaming or without tricks." —
Leo Burnett
No longer a
“trick to get noticed,” web sites are a necessity for businesses
today. Establishing a successful web presence means bringing the
consumer a memorable, informative, and satisfying experience.
The Internet is
changing the nature of marketing communications. Through the
Internet, buyers have “real-time” access to businesses across the
world. Interestingly, in spite of a number of studies that
investigate the Internet’s impact on advertising messages, to
date, no one has examined the Internet’s impact on the advertising
agency. In this study, we begin to fill this “gap” in the
literature. We conducted a content analysis of advertising agency
homepages to determine how agencies use the web to communicate
with current and potential customers. Specifically, we examine two
broad questions: 1) what percentage of leading U.S. advertising
agencies have a web presence?, and 2) for what purposes do ad
agencies use their homepages? To answer the second question, we
investigate three specific aspects of the homepages: a)
communication strategy, b) interactivity, and c) the degree to
which the homepage lists
firm credentials.
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Download "Cyberagency" Presentation |
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Cyber Identity Theft: A
Conceptual Model and Issues for Public Policy
Close, Angeline
G., George M. Zinkhan, and Robert Z. Finney (2004), “Cyber
Identify Theft: Issues for Public Policy,” Enhancing Knowledge
Development in Marketing, 15 (K. L. Bernhardt, J.S. Boles, and
P.S. Ellen ed.). Chicago: American Marketing Association, 48-55.
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OVERVIEW:
Here, a conceptual model is
introduced for empirical work on cyber identity theft. To do
this, three classification schemes (i.e., methods used by the
thieves; time frame of the theft; behavioral
responses by victims) synthesize conceptualizations of identity
theft associated with the Internet.
Together, these schemes illustrate major problems and trends
associated with cyber-identity theft. In light of the growing
concern associated with identity theft, these schemes are
highlighted in order to highlight and discuss key issues related
to public policy and consumer welfare for future research.
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The Determinants of
Consumer Electronic Shopping Cart Abandonment
Kukar-Kinney,
Monika, Angeline G. Close, and Heather Reineke,
Working Paper.
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OVERVIEW:
The goals of this study are to explain the
reasons for Internet shopping cart abandonment before a consumer
finalizes a purchase, and to offer solutions to increase the
conversion rate from Internet shopping to Internet buying.
According to the Expectancy Disconfirmation Model, prior
expectations of an experience induces satisfaction or
dissatisfaction (Simintiras, Diamantopoulos and Ferriday, 1997).
Depending on how the shopper foresees the transaction occurring,
positive disconfirmation (i.e., expectations are exceeded),
confirmation (i.e., experience and expectations are equal), or
negative disconfirmation (i.e., actual experience fails to meet
expectations) can result (Swan and Trawick, 1981). In the Internet
shopping context, a website that fails to confirm or positively
disconfirm expectations may influence consumers to become
dissatisfied and desert their shopping cart. The dependent
variable of interest, the extent of online shopping cart
abandonment, will be measured with the question “How frequently do
you abandon your online shopping cart after having placed
something in it during the same Internet session?” , and verified
with questions measured via a 7 point Likert scale. Measures for
independent variables, the determinants of shopping cart
abandonment, were adapted from the literature or newly developed
for the present study.
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Download "Cyber ID Theft" Presentation (TBA) |
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What Impacts First
Faculty Placements in Marketing?
Close, Angeline G.
and Julie Guidry (2007), “What Impacts First Faculty Placements in
Marketing?,”
Enhancing Knowledge Development in Marketing,. Chicago:
American Marketing
Association, forthcoming. (extended abstract)
Close, Angeline
Grace Julie Guidry, and Kent Monroe, “What Influences First
Faculty Placements in Marketing?,”
Working Paper.
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OVERVIEW:
We present findings and develop, we analyze
survey data from new first time tenure track faculty members in
marketing. To extend theories on recruitment success from other
business fields, we introduce the factors that may be more unique
to recent trends in new marketing faculty placements. Key findings
include that A-level publications, A-level manuscripts submitted,
dissertation status, years in the doctoral program, and attending
the AMA-Sheth doctoral consortium had a positive effect on salary,
while teaching experience had a negative effect on salary.
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Download "Marketing
Placements" Full Text |
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Download "Marketing Market"
Presentation |
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A Content
Analysis of Content Analyses
in Marketing
Austin, Graham,
Angeline G. Close, Sunil Contractor, JiHee Song, and Qiyu Zhang
(2004), “A Content Analysis of Content Analyses in Marketing, "Enhancing
Knowledge Development in Marketing, 15 (L. Bernhardt, J.S.
Boles, and P.S. Ellen, ed.). Chicago: American Marketing
Association, 192-194.
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OVERVIEW:
Marketing communication often
involves examination of communication processes--with the Internet
as a tool. Content analysis is a method for studying communication
forms (Yale and Gilly 1988), and here, we explore its use in
marketing research. We review all content analysis studies
published in select marketing journals from 1977 to 2002. We find
content analysis is not a widely used method in marketing
research. The method has gained sophistication as an analytical
tool over the past twenty-five years, as evidenced by the Internet
and content analysts’ heightened reliance on theory to inform
research design and interpretation of findings, and by their
increasing use of advanced statistical methods to analyze data.
However, many content analyses still rely on simple percentages to
interpret their data. We call for researchers to uphold more
rigorous standards in content analyses in order to improve its
efficacy as a research method in marketing.
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Download "Method's Own Medicine" Full Text |
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Download "Method's Own Medicine"
Presentation |
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Scientific Presentations in Marketing
Finney, R. Z. and Angeline Grace Close (2005),
“Scientific Presentations in Marketing,” (Book Review) Journal
of the Academy of Marketing Science
33 (2) (April), 37-38.
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OVERVIEW:
“[Lectures] depend entirely for
their value on the manner in which they are given. It is not the
matter, not the subject, so much as the man.” --Michael Faraday,
1864
For marketing scholars,
presentations are a must in the academic marketplace. During the
course of our careers, we present (or co-present with technology)
at conferences, on campus visits, to obtain grants, and to teach.
And yet, in spite of the importance of these lectures, many
scholars receive little formal instruction regarding how they can
improve their presentations. We review
a framework built
for scholars to become more effective presenters to academic and
practitioner audiences alike. Key areas are the use of technology
for technology's sake, interactivity, and making use of the
communication process.
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Text |
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